North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) - 1764 Words

NORTH AMERICAN FREE TRADE AGREEMENT (NAFTA) Brief Overview: NAFTA, The North American Free Trade Agreement, came into existence on January 1, 1994. NAFTA is essentially a free-trade agreement between the 3 North American nations of the Unites States, Canada, and Mexico. The major thought behind this treaty was to give the citizens and the companies of the North American nations many incentives to trade between themselves. The duties on U.S goods exported to Mexico were slashed by fifty percent, and other restrictions were to be detached from a lot of categories, such as motor vehicles, computers, automotive parts, and agricultural goods. NAFTA was also put into action so to safeguard the intellectual property rights of the companies, such†¦show more content†¦In 1993, Maquiladoras accounted to just 2143. But 6 yrs hence, the total count of maquiladoras had risen 73 percent to 3703†. This illustrates that NAFTA has had a net positive influence on Mexico, more than any other country. NAFTA: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: As mentioned earlier, NAFTA to date continues to be controversial, much before its origin. The main quarrel that quite a few politicians have had against NAFTA is that they dread it would turn nations of the likes of Canada into full time branch plant economies. The farmers in Mexico have been resisting NAFTA since they are of the opinion that all the subsidies that the United States’ farmers get has a detrimental effect on the Mexican agricultural prices, which in turn is forcing a lot of the Mexican farmers out of business. A lot of sectors in Mexico have displayed a solid downward trend in the salaries. Quite a few revolutions have been born in Mexico, e.g. the Zapatista revolutionaries, and this has led to plenty socio-political issues for the Mexicans. â€Å"Furthermore, NAFTA was accompanied by a striking decline of the power of trade unions in Mexicos city areas. NAFTA has been accompanied by a remarkable rise of illegal immigration from Mexico to the United States; apparently, a noteworthy fraction of this group are farmers forced off their land by bankruptcy. Resistance to NAFTA also arises from social justice, environmental and other advocacy organizations that are ofShow MoreRelatedThe North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)1345 Words   |  6 Pages The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), came into effect on January 1, 1994, creating the largest free trade region in the world, generating economic growth and helping to raise the standard of living for the people of all three countries participating. By strengthening the rules and procedures governing trade and investment, the NAFTA has shown to be a great base for adding to Canada’s prosperity and has set a valuable example of the benefits of t rade liberalization for the rest of theRead MoreNorth American Free Trade Agreement (Nafta)2362 Words   |  10 PagesNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) I. Brief overview of NAFTA (mainly for in-class presentation) a. NAFTA Introduction b. Original Expectations II. NAFTA over the last 12 years a. Impact on the U.S. economy i. Jobs (Employment Growth) ii. Labor iii. Income iv. Imports vs. Exports (Trade Deficit) 1. Agriculture v. Economic growth b. Impact on Canadian economy c. Impact on Mexican economy d. Global Impact i. International Business ii. FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) Read MoreEssay on North American Free Trade Agreement NAFTA1710 Words   |  7 PagesNAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement Implementation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) began on January 1, 1994, and is one of the United States’ most significant regional trade agreements. The final provisions of the NAFTA were fully implemented on January 1, 2008. With full implementation, the last remaining trade restriction on a handful of agricultural commodities such as U.S. exports to Mexico of corn, dry edible beans, nonfat dry milk and high fructose corn syrupRead MoreNafta And Theu.s. North American Free Trade Agreement1063 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction The formation of NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) has brought many advantages among the nations of the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. Since its inception in 1994, it is difficult to see the great effect NAFTA has economically whether it is good or bad due to currency fluctuations, and economic growth (Villarreal Fergusson, 2014). This is why the paper will go into the advantages that NAFTA has brought to the countries mentioned above. The advantages that will be discussedRead MoreEssay about North American Free Trade Agreement: Nafta1764 Words   |  8 Pages North American Free Trade Agreement: NAFTA Introduction nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;I believe that the North American Free Trade Agreement was an inevitable step in the evolution of the United States economic policy. The globilization of the world economy due to technological advances in computers and communications have shrunk the world to the point where no single country acting alone can effectively compete on the foreign market. Even the United States, with its vast resources, can not haveRead MoreNorth American Free Trade Agreement (Nafta)2362 Words   |  10 PagesNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) I. Brief overview of NAFTA (mainly for in-class presentation) a. NAFTA Introduction b. Original Expectations II. NAFTA over the last 12 years a. Impact on the U.S. economy i. Jobs (Employment Growth) ii. Labor iii. Income iv. Imports vs. Exports (Trade Deficit) 1. Agriculture v. Economic growth b. Impact on Canadian economy c. Impact on Mexican economy d. Global Impact i. International Business ii. FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) Read MoreNafta, The North American Free Trade Agreement1253 Words   |  6 PagesNAFTA NAFTA, the North American Free Trade Agreement, is the largest free market agreement in the world. It includes the US, Canada, and Mexico, and was put in place on January 1, 1994 (Inc.com). The agreement was signed by US President Bill Clinton, Mexican President Carlos Salinas, and Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrà ©tien (Sergie, 2014). Its purpose was to do away with tariff barriers between the three nations on goods and services, remove international investment restrictions, and protect intellectualRead MoreNafta ( North American Free Trade Agreement1449 Words   |  6 PagesNAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) was formed in 1994 and created one of the world’s largest free trade zones which includes Mexico, United States and Canada. NAFTA is an example of a multilateral approach to free trade. The multilateral approach states that a country will bargain with its trading partners to remove trade restrictions while the other countries do the same. Another multilatera l approach is GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) which regulates international tradeRead MoreEvaluating Naft Was It Worth It?1229 Words   |  5 PagesEvaluating NAFTA: Was it worth it? In 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was enacted between two industrial countries and a yet still developing nation. This was an agreement that was the first of its kind due to the relationship that the countries had and the investment opportunities that it presented. The United States, Canada, and developing Mexico decided to work towards eliminating most tariffs and non-tariff barriers between the three in order to increase the flow of trade in goodsRead MoreThe North American Free Trade Agreement1711 Words   |  7 PagesThis paper will discuss four components of the North American Free Trade Agreement: Background, events, pros and cons. Upon the research, you will discover four online articles to provide more detail and examples. This research will indicate how it was developed and the reasoning on why it would benefit the nation. Also, it will provide events that occur after the agreement was signed by congress and the recession the countries experience d uring the early 2000s. There will be a chart located

Essay Understanding Islamic Religion and Culture - 1221 Words

What is your view on the Islamic religion and culture? Did you know they are the fastest growing religion in the world today, with eighty-percent now developing outside the Arab world(Belt, Don) Today’s generation does not show much interest or knowledge of their own religion; let alone the Islamic people. Most people only expose themselves to information that matches their own opinions and beliefs. Instead of learning and exploring new things about the world they stick to what they know because it is easier and comfortable for them. The Islamic people live in different culture, have different beliefs, and live in a part of the globe that has turmoil in the world surrounding the Middle East and the Islamic faith; however it is†¦show more content†¦If each person took consideration for their life they were given, then maybe this world would be of less crime. There are five pillars of practice in that the Islam partakes in their religion. These practices must be assu med in order to be considered a true Muslim in the Islamic tradition. The first is Shahadah: declaration of faith in the oneness of God and that Muhammad is the last prophet of God. The second is: Formal prayer five times a day. The third is: Fasting during the daylight hours in the month of Ramadan. The next is the fourth: the Islamic people pay a tax of two and a half percent of one’s savings to be given to the needy at the end of each year. And the final pillar: Pilgrimage to Mecca at least once, if physically and financially able (Burrell, David). Christianity is based off the Bible, while the Islamic study the Qur’an. The Qur’an is explained as a sacred text of Islam, divided into 114 chapters, or suras. It is seen as the word of God, dictated to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel, and accepted as the foundation of Islamic law, religion, culture, and politics. So, the similarities do not different much from each other. The faiths are based upon a book, the belief of a higher power, and also Christianity might not pray five times day like the Islamic, but we both spend times out of our day praying. Islamic Faith has a lot to do with the turmoil in the Middle East and the surrounding areas. Islamic people deal with muchShow MoreRelatedIslam Studies Jahiliyyah1539 Words   |  7 Pagesan influence after the advent of Islam. Elements of the jahiliyyah such as the geographical location; the political, social and religious life; pre-islamic literature, rituals of the Ka ba and the role of Women have shaped the understanding of Islam. The term Jahiliyyah means the period of ignorance or barbarism; reflecting the Arabian culture before the birth of Muhammad(Mvumbi, 2010). The concept reflects the period in which Arabia had no dispensation, no knowledge of Allah or one God andRead MoreThe Media, Oppression, And The Islam915 Words   |  4 Pagesflattering picture? Perhaps it is the image of a dirty, turban wearing, dark skinned man. Or a culture that is often described as psychopathic, radical, and only consisting of terrorists. This cruel image has affected the treatment of Arabic people and religion by forcing Muslims to endure stereotypes that cause discrimination and hostility. The main source that upholds the harsh view of Islamic culture is the strong media bias. However, the media would not hold such a strong influence over the generalRead MoreCulture Within The Islamic Religion1290 Words   |  6 Pages Culture within the Islamic Religion Culture is the common uniting factors that a community shares. It includes values, customs, habits, thoughts that guide members of the society. Culture can also be defined as practices and knowledge that is transmitted to the generation by social interactions between members of a social community (Pohlong 1). It differs from community to community. The purpose of the essay is to relate and differentiate culture from religion, especially theRead MoreIslamic Reform Since 9/111184 Words   |  5 Pages The religion of Islam garners large amounts attention. Many believe it is a violent and backwards religion. Since 9/11, Islamic reform has become an all-purpose phrase: equally a western impulse to protect itself from Muslim violence and a humanist notion aimed at assisting voiceless Muslims (Eteraz1). Extreme displays of Islamic faith such as the attacks on the World Trade Center on 9/11 have generated negative stereotypes about Islam as a religion. These stereotypes of violence a nd backwardsRead MoreThe Encounter Between War And Religion932 Words   |  4 PagesEncounter between War and Religion Religion has always been the central worldview of traditional civilizations. For most of these civilizations, religion explains existence and ethical thinking for governments. Each religion mentioned wages war according to their principals and beliefs in order to gain power over another. Also, they each have their own view for when war is considered just or unjust. Focusing on Christianity, Islamic, and Buddhism religions and their understanding of warfare will helpRead MoreUnderstanding Islam1309 Words   |  6 Pages â€Å"Understanding Islam† by Kenneth Jost, pg. 172 – 176 Islam is an ill-perceived religion throughout most of the Western world. Once known as a quiet and peaceful religion, the general perception of people from other religions and most of the world upon Islam is quite distorted. Ever since the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center, an influx of discrimination and prejudice towards Islam and Muslims has spread throughout the world. In â€Å"Understanding Islam,† by Kenneth Jost, an article aboutRead MoreSpiritual, Religion, And Culture Essay1492 Words   |  6 PagesSpiritual, Religion, and Culture: ISLAM The religion of Islam is described in a way that, â€Å"provides humankind with a unified view about the purpose of our creation and existence, our ultimate destiny and our place among other creatures. It is a way of life that is in complete conformance with nature, and with reason, logic and science† (Islam Explained, n.d.). â€Å"Islam† is the Arabic word which means voluntary surrender to the will of Allah (God) and obedience to His commands. It is the religion of overRead MoreThe Horror Of X And 11 : The Black Skin Of The Boston Bombers915 Words   |  4 Pagesday-to-day reality of Islamic followers in America. The horror of 9/11, the native skin of the Boston bombers, and the endless horrific news from the Islamic State (IS) continue to regurgitate in the media year after year, month after month, week after week, and night after night leaving a listener with negative feelings toward the Islam religion and its followers, Muslims. Muslims bear the brunt of social construction because the United States continues to identify the Islamic religion as a whole versesRead MoreThe Horror Of 9 / 11883 Words   |  4 Pagesis a day-to-day reality for Islamic followers in America. The horror of 9/11, the native skin of the Boston bombers, and the endless horrific news from the Islamic State (IS) continue to regurgitate in the media year after year, month after month, week after week, and night after night never leaving a listener short of a negative taste for Islam followers, Muslims. Muslims bear the brunt of social construction because the U.S. continues to identify the Islam religion as a whole verses exceptingRead MoreLeadership in Islam1593 Words   |  7 PagesSTEPPING OUTSIDE THE CULTURE: THE ISLAMIC WAY OF LEADERSHIP By Rohaniza M. Sumndad Leadership is defined in many ways. Richards and Engle define it as articulating visions, embodying values, and creating the environment within which things can be accomplished. Schein refer it as the ability to step outside the culture, while Drath and Plus say that it is a process of making sense of what people are doing together for people to understand and be committed. There have been several studies and concepts

Downsizing And Organizational Culture Essay Example For Students

Downsizing And Organizational Culture Essay Downsizing and Organizational CultureBy Joe GonzalezSociology 100Dr. Mario RedaTable of ContentsChapter 11Chapter 22Organizational Culture Defined2Downsizing Defined..3Culture Change..4Connecting the Literature.7Organizational Level Analysis7Organizational/ Individual Level Analysis10Downsizings Impact on Culture12Chapter 3.13Downsizing And Organizational Culture IntroductionA noted scholar recently assessed downsizing as probably the most pervasive yet understudied phenomenon in the business world 1. While we have become numbed by the near daily accounts of new layoffs, a New York Times national survey finding is perhaps more telling: since 1980, a family member in one-third of all U.S. households has been laid off 2. By some measures, downsizing has failed abjectly as a tool to achieve the main raison detre, reduced costs. According to a Wyatt Company survey covering the period between 1985 and 1990, 89 percent of organizations which engaged in downsizing reported expense reduction as their primary goal, while only 42 percent actually reduced expenses. Downsizing for the sake of cost reduction alone has been castigated intellectually as short-sighted and neglectful of what resources will be needed to increase the revenue stream of the future 3. A truer and fuller understanding of the forces shaping and thrusting downsizing forward today comes from an appreciation of increased global competition; changing technologies, which in turn are profoundly impacting the nature of work; increasing availability of a contingent work force 4; and shifting balance of power among organizational constituents away from rank and file employees and in the direction of shareholders and the chief executives who serve as their proxy. When we conceptualize downsizing within these broader frameworks, it becomes clear that we are speaking of downsizing both as a response to and as a catalyst of organizational culture change. This article will later provide a formal definition of organizational culture. For the moment, it is suggested that culture is to an organization what personality is to an individual. As with personality, change takes time and may be hard to discern, especially for persons inside the organization. This article will argue that, ultimately, the most prominent effects of downsizing will be in relation to culture change, not in relation to saved costs or short-term productivity gains. Key drivers of organizational culture will tend to shape an organizations approach to downsizing. For whose benefit does the organization exist? What are the basic assumptions among people who work in the organization? What are the basic assumptions the organization and the employee make in relation to each other? Establishing a direct link between downsizing and organizational culture is not an easy matter, however, as the following example will demonstrate. The Chief Executive Officer of Apple Computer re cently bought himself more time with disgruntled shareholders by promising to take forceful action on a number of fronts, including downsizing. The executive cited five crises: lack of cash; declining quality; a failed operating system development project; Apples chaotic culture; and a fragmented strategy . How do you connect downsizing, which is one of a number of actions being taken, with corporate culture, which is only one of a number of crises being solved in a manner and to a level that establishes a positive relationship?Another reason that it is difficult to draw a specific link between downsizing and organizational culture is that there are many different variations and approaches to downsizing. A distinction has been made between proactive downsizing, which is planned in advance and usually integrated with a larger set of objectives, and reactive downsizing, which would be typified by cost-cutting as a last resort after a prolonged period of inattention to looming problems by management5. Work force reductions can range from forceful in nature, i.e., involuntary reductions, to the milder approaches, such as resignation incentives and job sharing 6. There are different ways of deciding who stays, who goes from the outwardly arbitrary to criterion-based 7. There are different modes of planning, ranging from secretive sessions to open discussions and solicitation of ideas from employees. There are different standards of notice of terminations, including relatively harsh same day terminations as well as more generous 90 day or longer notices. There are even differences in intentionality, i.e., reductions can be planned to present employees with as little a break as possible from what they have known in the past or they can be designed to be deliberately disruptive to the status quo 8. Organizational Culture DefinedIt has been observed with respect to the concept of power that its omnipresence makes it difficult to usefully apply in specific situations 9. The same may be said of culture. If it is everywhere, and pervades every aspect of our existence, then how can it be subject to analysis. Schein (1992) offers at least a partial solution. He divides organizational culture into three levels: 1) at the surface are artifacts, those aspects (such as dress) which can be easily discerned, yet are hard to understand; 2) beneath artifacts are espoused values which are conscious strategies, goals and philosophies; 3) the core, or essence, of culture is represented by the basic underlying assumptions and values, which are difficult to discern because they exist at a largely unconscious level, yet provide the key to understanding why things happen the way they do. These basic assumptions form around deeper dimensions of human existence such as the nature of humans; human rel ationships and activity; reality; and truth. Schein (1992) himself acknowledges that, even with rigorous study, we can only make statements about elements of culture, not culture in its entirety. The approach which Schein recommends for inquiring about culture is an iterative, clinical approach, similar to a therapeutic relationship between a psychologist and a patient. Scheins disciplined approach to culture stands in contrast to the almost flippant way in which culture is referred to in some of the popular management literature. Downsizing DefinedLike culture, downsizing is problematic in its usefulness. Because it is popularly associated with giving people the axe in organizations, it is not a term that many management consultants go out of their way to use. On the other side of the spectrum, there are researchers who are concerned that downsizing has become too closely associated with the process of organizational decline and its naturally negative effects. Cameron, for example, defines downsizing as a positive and purposive strategy: a set of organizational activities undertaken on the part of management of an organization and designed to improve organizational efficiency, productivity, and/or competitiveness 10. Downsizing thus defined falls into the category of management tools for achieving desired change, much like rightsizing and reengineering. Clearly, the Cameron definition is overly expansive. Downsizing may and very likely will impact or impinge on systemic change efforts such as the introduction of total quality management, reengineering, or reinventing initiatives. They are not one and the same, however, as the Cameron definition would imply. This is significant, because Camerons connection of downsizing with a larger, purposive strategy allows him to conclude unabashedly that downsizing is a good and positive thing and that organizations should seek to do it on a regular and continuing basis . This cheery conclusion flies in the face of Camerons own four year study of thirty firms in the automotive industry, data from which revealed that very few of the organizations in the study implemented downsizing in a way that improved their effectiveness. Most deteriorated in terms of pre-downsizing levels of quality, productivity, effectiveness, and the dirty dozen, e.g., conflict, low morale, loss of trust, rigidity, scapego ating) 11. Downsizing is defined in this effort simply as a reduction in the size of the work force. This definition provides some analytical clarity, because it does not imply a value, either positive or negative, and encompasses a wide range of possible approaches. Thus defined, downsizing does not necessarily imply a reduction in the assets of the organization; for example, an organization may contract out a function that was previously done by permanent employees. The elimination of the jobs of the employees constitutes downsizing. Culture ChangeChanging an organization is messy, complicated business. A study by Kotter and Heskett (1992) indicated that culture change becomes tougher as organizations become more established and successful. The very bases for a companys earlier success can be hindrances to needed changes under new and different scenarios from those which existed previously. Prevailing models provide uncertain guideposts. For example, it is standard fare within the leadership literature12 to depict the need for a vision of a desired future state of the enterprise. What if elements of a vision clash with each other? What if a leader, for example, decides to embrace a total quality management culture built upon trust among all parties and, at the same time, embarks upon a series of layoffs which are likely to engender distrust among those same parties? The conventional wisdom in response is to acknowledge that there will be sadness and losses and a murky period which goes under the heading of the neutral zone; but, in the end, there will be new beginnings13. How long does the neutral zone last? Existing research provides no solid answers. How long will a leader with a vision wait for the culture to change in positive ways? Research supports the idea that culture change is a multi-year effort 14. If we broaden our conceptualization of culture change to include both intended consequences (planned change) and unintended consequences (unplanned change), then it is at least possible to be confident that downsizing is a catalyst for culture change. Organizational theorists from Lewin (1951) forward, including Argyris (1992) have insisted upon the need for a destabilizing element in any change process. The existing status quo is conceptualized as a dynamic in which forces resisting change and forces pushing for change have found a balance. In order to shift the balance (in the favor of change), the situation needs to be unfrozen. In other words, people have to be rocked out of their comfortable existence, so they will be alerted to the need for change. Downsizing qualifies as a destabilizer of status quo ante even under circumstances where departures are voluntary. Hickok (1995), for example, documented symptoms of survivor illness at an Air force installation that had, up to the point of the research, experienced only voluntary departures. The literature is replete with examples of burnout, depression, anger, and betrayal as common responses by survivors of layoffs. Not all responses are negative: there are reports of people getting charged up, finding new excitement in their work, being challenged by the prospect of doing more with less or saving the organization15 found that implementers of layoffs (i.e, those pulling the strings) had more positive reactions than did implementees (i.e., those who were having the layoffs done to them). In any event, it should be acknowledged that downsizing has altered the rule of the employment game. The way these changes have tended to be theoretically euphemized is by indicating that the psychological contract between employers and employees has been violated16. No longer can the employer offer job security. The new psychological contract being marketed is conditional employment, with the availability of training and development opportunities to help keep employees employable, even if not at this particular company17. Minimum Wage and Why we Should Leave It EssayBrockner and colleagues have studied the fairness of layoffs from a procedural justice perspective and have shown a link between perceived fairness of the layoffs and survivor commitment to the organization32. Among the fairness factors which Brockner examines is the connection with existing corporate culture. Organizations such as IBM and Digital Equipment which have traditionally had a policy of averting layoffs are likely to be perceived by employees as violating the psychological contract and therefore as more unfair when they do resort to layoffs. Noer (1993) sees letting go of the old employment contract as tough but necessary. His view is that implicit lifetime employment guarantees are unhealthy both for individuals and organizations. They result in a sort of organizational codependency in which individuals invest enormous energy in trying to control the system and at the same time have much of their self-worth tied up in trying to live up to the organizations, not their own, values. In a similar vein, Hecksher (1995) concludes that management loyalty to the organization is no longer needed; what is needed is more professionalism, evidenced by creative contributions to the organization. Bridges (1994) goes even further; he sees a secular trend away from the traditional job, with security, job description, etc. Like Noer, he sees greater possibility for individuals to achieve autonomy and satisfaction by taking responsibility for their own futures. Work relationships can become much more testy during periods of organizational decline. That can take the form of backstabbing, placing of blame, and overt failure to cooperate33. Hickok (1995) analyzed interview responses at two downsizing military bases and found that mentions of increased conflict in the workplace were significantly greater than the more positive mentions of pulling together. Downsizings Impact on CultureFor organizations, particularly the IBMs and Digital Equipments of the world which long resisted layoffs, it is hard to image that the organizations or their cultures have remained anything close to intact. Getting back to the questions posed earlier: For whose benefit does the organization exist? It seems clear that organizations exist less today for the well-being of rank-and file employees than they once did. With the Dow shattering all records, it seems clear that the shareholders have the upper hand in making critical corporate decisions. They are partnered with CEOs who received an average pay raise in 1995 of 23% 34. Just look at who is prospering and who is not. What are the basic assumptions among people about working relationships in the organization? The basic assumptions about working relationships have changed, in ways that can not yet be well assessed. It appears, at least, that relationships tend to be less familial and more competitive tha n in the past. What is the worth of what have traditionally been termed commitment and loyalty? We just do not know? What is the impact of the feeling that the organization is a community even a family with relatively stable long-term working relationships? And how will that play out in terms of cooperation given to others as opposed to backstabbing in the intense competition for scarce resources? We can only be sure that things have changed, not how. What are the basic assumptions the organization and the employee make in relation to each other? The basic assumptions by employees and organizations about their employment relationship have changed from long-term and stable, with organizations expected to make accommodations to avoid laying people off to more short-term and contingent. Researchers such as Bridges and Noer forecast a more happy future for those who adapt to the changing times in the new scenario, but that is a difficult forecast to test. Organizations usually have some degree of flexibility about how they reduce personnel expenses. Decisions to inflict pain upon employees as part of the process may very well reflect an effort to bust the existing culture. Decisions to minimize pain may reflect an effort to reinforce the existing culture. Table 1 sorts several downsizing practices by whether they tend to reinforce (or leave alone) existing culture or to intentionally destabilize the culture. For these purposes, methods which are less disruptive and/or give members more of a sense of control are labeled as reinforcing and those practices which are particularly likely to induce pain among members of the work force (particularly those who are asked to leave) are labeled as destabilizing:ConclusionIt is difficult to write with authority about the relationship of downsizing to organizational culture, in part because these are both subject areas in need of clarification and empirical research. It is intuitively evident, eve n definitional, that a leaders cultural mind set will have a great deal to do with whether and how downsizing is implemented in an organization. It also seems, beyond question, that downsizing acts as an organizational destabilizer and thus as a catalyst for culture change. Whether resultant cultural change is beneficial to the organization as a whole is open to speculation. Because downsizing is a relatively recent phenomenon at the white-collar level, time will have to differentiate between short-term effects and reactions and the longer-term consequences. Perhaps less bloated bureaucracies will free people to get more work done and to interact more positively. Perhaps a whole generation of management thinkers overstated the value of loyalty and commitment that accrues over a long and stable employment tenure. That, again, will be for time to judge. This article has noted three observations in relation to the impact of downsizing on organizational culture. First, it clearly appears that power has shifted away from rank-and-file employees in the direction of top management/ownership. Accompanying this change is a shift in emphasis away from the well-being of individuals in the direction of the pre-eminence and predominance of the organization as a whole. Second, it appears working relationships have changed away from being familial in the direction of being more competitive. Third, the employer-employee relationship has moved away from long-term and stable in the direction of short-term and contingent. It was argued in this article that decisions associated with a downsizing action may tend either to be culturally reinforcing (i.e., less disruptive, more individual control) or culturally destabilizing (i.e., likely to induce pain). Key downsizing practices were categorized by which of these they were more generally associated. Finally, the author suggested five simple question areas that organizational leaders who are interested in probing the moral and spiritual dimensions of downsizing might usefully consider. These include ensuring the fundamental decency of the approach being considered, engaging in appropriate dialogue, thinking through the consequences for those who may be adversely affected, having ready explanations for multiple constituencies, and offering a realistic opportunity for a better future for the organization and the organizations stakeholders. Works Cited1. American Management Association (1994). 1994 survey on downsizing. 2. Armstrong-Stassen, M. (1993). Survivors reactions to a workforce reduction: A comparison of blue-collar workers and their supervisors, Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences 10 (4), pp. 334-343. 3. Argyris, C. (1992). Knowledge for action: A guide to overcoming barriers to organizational change. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 4. Bennis, W. (1989). On becoming a leader. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 5. Bridges, W. (1987). Managing transitions. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 6. Bridges, W. (1988). Surviving the survivor syndrome. 7. William Bridges and Associates (pamphlet, 14 pages). (1994). Job shift: How to prosper in a world without jobs. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 8. Brockner, J. (Winter,1992). Managing the effects of layoffs on others, California Management Review, pp. 9-27. 9. Brockner, J., Konovsky, M, Cooper-Schneider, R., Folger, R., Martin, C., and Bies, R. (1994). 10. Interactive effects of procedural justice and outcome negativity on victims and survivors of job loss, Academy of Management Journal 37(2), pp. 397-409. 11. 12. Cameron, K.S., Freeman, S.J., and Mishra, A.K. (1991). Best practices in white-collar downsizing: Managing contradictions, Academy of Management Executive 5(3), pp. 57-72. 13. Cascio, W. (1993). Downsizing: What do we know? What have we learned? Academy of Management Executive 7(1), pp. 95-104. 14. Downs, A. (1995). Corporate executions. NY: AMACOM (225 pages). 15. Fierman, J. (January 24 1994). The contingency work force, Fortune, pp. 30-36. 16. Greengard, S. (November 1993). Dont rush downsizing: Plan, plan, plan, Personnel Journal 72(11), 64-76. 17. Hamel, G., and Prahalad, C.K. (July-August 1994). Competing for the future, Harvard Business Review, pp. 122-128. 18. Handy, C. (December 5 1990). What is a company for? Michael Shanks Memorial Lecture reprint (13 pages). 19. Hecksher, C. (1995). White-collar blues: Managem ent loyalties in an age of restructuring. New York: Basic Books. 20. Hickok, T. (1995). The impact of work force reductions on those who remain: A study of civilian workers at two Department of Defense bases. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA. 21. Kearns, D. and Nadler, D. (1992). Prophets in the dark: How Xerox reinvented itself and beat back the Japanese. New York: HarperCollins (334 pages). 22. Kotter, J. And Heskett, J. (1992). Corporate culture and performance. New York: The Free Press. 23. Kozlowski, S., Chao, G., Smith, E., and Hedlund, V. (1993). Organizational downsizing: Strategies, interventions, and research implications, International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology 8, pp. 263-332. 24. Leana, C. and Feldman, D.C. (1992). Coping with job loss: How individuals, organizations, and communities respond to layoffs. New York: Lexington Books. 25. Lewin, K. (1951). General field theory. New York. 26. McGrego r, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill. 27. Mohrman, S.A., and Mohrman, A.M., Jr. (1983). Employee involvement in declining organizations, Human Resources Management 22(4), pp. 445-465. 28. New York Times (1996). The downsizing of America. New York: Times Books. 29. Noer, D. (1993). Healing the wounds: Overcoming the trauma of layoffs and revitalizing downsized organizations. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 30. Pfeffer, J. (1981). Power in organizations. Marshfield, Mass: Pitman Publishing. 31. Petruno, T. (December 19 1996). Has greed supplanted shareholder value? Los Angeles Times. 32. Rousseau, D. (1995). Psychological contracts in organizations: Understanding written and unwritten agreements. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 33. Schein, E. (1992). Organizational culture and leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 34. Schumpeter, J. (1950). Capitalism, socialism, and democracy. New York: Harper and Row. 35. Sloan, Allan (February 26 1996). The hit men, Newsweek, pp . 44-48. 36. Sutton, R.I. and DAunno, T. (1989). Decreasing organizational size: Untangling the effects of money and people, Academy of Management Review 14(2), pp. 194-212. 37. Tichy, N. and Sherman, S. (1994). Control your destiny or someone else will. New York: HarperCollins. 38. Tomasko, R.M. (1990). Downsizing: Reshaping the corporation for the future. New York: AMACOM. 39. Washington Post (March 5 1996). CEOs at major corporations got 23 percent raise in 95, p. c1. 40. Washington Post (May 5 1997). DIGEST, p. c1. 41. Waterman, R., Waterman, J., and Collard, B. (July-August 1994). Toward a more career-resilient workforce Harvard Business Review, pp. 87-95. 42. The Wyatt Company (1993). Best practices in corporate restructuring: Wyatts 1993 survey of corporate restructuring. 43. Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.